We consider the following question: given information on
individual policyholder characteristics, how can we ensure that
insurance prices do not discriminate with respect to protected
characteristics, such as gender? We address the issues of direct
and indirect discrimination, the latter resulting from implicit
learning of protected characteristics from nonprotected ones. We
provide rigorous mathematical definitions for direct and indirect
discrimination, and we introduce a simple formula for
discrimination-free pricing, that avoids both direct and indirect
discrimination. Our formula works in any statistical model. We
demonstrate its application on a health insurance example, using a
state-of-the-art generalized linear model and a neural network
regression model. An important conclusion is that
discrimination-free pricing, in general, requires collection of
policyholders' discriminatory characteristics, posing potential
challenges in relation to policyholder's privacy concerns.
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